We are the UK government department responsible for safeguarding our natural environment, supporting our world-leading food and farming industry, and sustaining a thriving rural economy. Our broad remit means we play a major role in people’s day-to-day life, from the food we eat, and the air we breathe, to the water we drink.
Oral Answers to Questions is a regularly scheduled appearance where the Secretary of State and junior minister will answer at the Dispatch Box questions from backbench MPs
Other Commons Chamber appearances can be:Westminster Hall debates are performed in response to backbench MPs or e-petitions asking for a Minister to address a detailed issue
Written Statements are made when a current event is not sufficiently significant to require an Oral Statement, but the House is required to be informed.
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs does not have Bills currently before Parliament
A Bill to make provision about the regulation, governance and special administration of water companies.
This Bill received Royal Assent on 24th February 2025 and was enacted into law.
e-Petitions are administered by Parliament and allow members of the public to express support for a particular issue.
If an e-petition reaches 10,000 signatures the Government will issue a written response.
If an e-petition reaches 100,000 signatures the petition becomes eligible for a Parliamentary debate (usually Monday 4.30pm in Westminster Hall).
In modern society, we believe more consideration needs to be given to animal welfare and how livestock is treated and culled.
We believe non-stun slaughter is barbaric and doesn't fit in with our culture and modern-day values and should be banned, as some EU nations have done.
End the use of cages and crates for all farmed animals
Gov Responded - 17 Feb 2025 Debated on - 16 Jun 2025We think the UK Government must ban all cages for laying hens as soon as possible.
We think it should also ban the use of all cage and crates for all farmed animals including:
• farrowing crates for sows
• individual calf pens
• cages for other birds, including partridges, pheasants and quail
Chris Packham, Ruth Tingay and Mark Avery (Wild Justice) believe that driven grouse shooting is bad for people, the environment and wildlife. People; we think grouse shooting is economically insignificant when contrasted with other real and potential uses of the UK’s extensive uplands.
Commons Select Committees are a formally established cross-party group of backbench MPs tasked with holding a Government department to account.
At any time there will be number of ongoing investigations into the work of the Department, or issues which fall within the oversight of the Department. Witnesses can be summoned from within the Government and outside to assist in these inquiries.
Select Committee findings are reported to the Commons, printed, and published on the Parliament website. The government then usually has 60 days to reply to the committee's recommendations.
The Government recognises the importance of having enough water through the Environment Improvement Plan – ‘Goal 3: Water - We will ensure English waters are clean, resilient and plentiful.’ Within this plan, there are stretching targets to reduce demand for water.
The Government is playing its part by introducing a new mandatory water efficiency label and reviewing building standards to help people use a little less water.
In addition, water companies are required to publish water resources management plans (WRMP) that set out how the companies will provide secure public water supplies for a 25-year period. The recently published 2024 WRMPs set out how water supplies would be maintained over the coming years through demand management, leakage reduction and enhancing supplies from river and groundwater sources in the time period before new strategic sources of water, such as large reservoirs, come online.
The Environment Agency (EA) published the National Framework for Water Resources in June 2025, which sets out the current and future pressures on water resources and the main actions needed across government, regulators, regional groups, water companies and all sectors of use to address the challenge of water scarcity. This includes the need for joined-up planning between different water-using sectors to identify collaborative solutions for water resources.
The EA is carrying this work forward, with a programme of resilience workstreams across sectors, including for public water supply, agriculture, energy, and data centres.
In England and Wales, The Security and Emergency Measures Direction 2022 (SEMD) is the main legislative framework specific to water companies for emergency planning. It requires water companies to ensure continuation of their water distribution functions during an emergency. Separate arrangements apply in Scotland and Northern Ireland.
Companies are required under the SEMD framework to plan for a wide range of disruptive scenarios, including continuous monitoring of risks such as severe winter weather. In addition to SEMD requirements, companies are also incentivised under Ofwat’s performance targets regime to minimise supply interruptions and resulting customer impacts. The Drinking Water Inspectorate regulates water company performance on SEMD performance.
Water companies are also Category Two Responders under the Civil Contingencies Act (2004) and have duties to plan for emergencies and cooperate with other organisations in their Local Resilience Forums in understanding risk, planning and exercising.
Defra maintains regular strategic engagement with water companies on resilience planning. This includes in advance of forecast periods of severe weather. Water companies also engage with their Local Resilience Forums during responses to water outages.
Defra undertakes strategic risk assessment, planning and engagement with the water sector and other government departments to regarding water outage risk.
Delivering on the Plan for Change, this government is investing at least £10.5 billion until 2036 to construct new flood schemes and repair existing defences, protecting communities from the devastating impacts of climate change.
The proportion of Defra Group’s total budget allocated to Floods in 2025/26 is 20%. This remains the second largest area of the Defra Group budget.
Defra produces statistical estimates of the number of people working on commercial [see a below] agricultural holdings in England. Defra does not monitor the numbers leaving and entering the sector separately, therefore estimates show the net change in the workforce.
Estimates in the table below show a decrease of 1.9% in the agricultural workforce in England between June 2024 and 2025.
Agricultural workforce in England at 1 June:
| 2023 | 2024 | 2025 | % change 2025/2024 |
Total people working on commercial agricultural holdings | 292,401 | 284,797 | 279,493 | -1.9% |
Notes
(a) Commercial holdings are those registered with the Rural Payments Agency for payments or livestock purposes and with significant levels of farming activity.
Full data series for England and the UK are published here:
Agricultural workforce in England at 1 June - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)
Agricultural Workforce in the United Kingdom at 1 June - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)
The food strategy recognises the key role that regional and local food systems can play in supporting delivery of the growth, health, sustainability, and food security/ resilience outcomes. Defra wants to create an environment that champions UK food cultures and celebrates British food. The strategy is an opportunity to celebrate the food we make which is uniquely British, combining our heritage and the expertise and innovation of our food businesses. Connecting local communities can be a key vehicle for achieving this outcome and for harnessing a stronger food culture.
The Marine Management Organisation, who hold catch data, have confirmed three UK vessels caught over 6.8t of bass in 2025.
The woodland feature has been recorded as unfavourable since 2012, and was first identified as declining in the condition assessment published in March 2025. The heathland feature has been unfavourable since 2000, and was first identified as declining in September 2012. For both habitats, prior to their being recorded as unfavourable declining, they had previously been considered as unfavourable recovering. Unfavourable condition means that the habitat is not meeting its definition of favourable condition, and ‘recovering/declining’ indicates whether the management of on and off-site pressures will enable the habitat to become favourable.
Natural England (NE) and the Forestry Commission are working with Birmingham City Council (BCC) to review on-site management to address the decline in habitat condition. This includes: improved grazing; addressing scrub and bracken encroachment; management of invasive species; increased woodland thinning; and visitor management. NE also provided a detailed response to BCC’s 2025 consultation on its Sutton Park National Nature Reserve management plan, which identifies the key objectives and actions for managing the Park. NE is also discussing with BCC future funding support through agri-environment schemes and other sources.
NE is working with BCC and other neighbouring Local Planning Authorities to influence strategic development and transport plans to ensure housing needs are met while protecting the habitats of the Site of Special Scientific Interest from recreational pressure and air pollution.
NE and the Environment Agency continue to work with Severn Trent Water to address pollution risks from sewage infrastructure as part of the Water Industry Natural Environment Programme.
The recently published West Midlands Combined Authority Local Nature Recovery Strategy recognises the importance of Sutton Park, both for nature and for people. Actions identified in the Strategy, both within the Park and the wider area, will also support habitat recovery in the Park.
No impact assessments have been produced because catch limits are agreed through UK/EU annual negotiations and limits cover all permitted gears at a coastal state level, as well as across the stock’s natural range.
We are continuing to develop a withdrawal scheme so that owners who no longer believe that their dog is an XL Bully can apply to have their certificate of exemption for their dog withdrawn. This work is still in progress, and further details will be shared once finalised.
As set out in the Animal Welfare Strategy, we will consult on whether to ban the use of electric shock collars later in this Parliament. We will carefully consider the scope of the consultation ahead of its publication.
As set out in the Animal Welfare Strategy, we will consult on whether to ban the use of electric shock collars later in this Parliament. We will carefully consider the scope of the consultation ahead of its publication.
Defra is working with the police, local authorities and animal welfare groups to help prevent dog attacks. As part of this work, the Government reconvened the Responsible Dog Ownership taskforce to explore measures to promote responsible dog ownership across all breeds of dog. The taskforce is considering improvements in data collection and reporting. We look forward to receiving its findings and recommendations in due course.
The changes to the EU Control Regulation apply to all vessels fishing in EU waters including those of EU member states and the UK. All UK vessels licensed to fish in EU waters have been notified of the impending changes and further detail and guidance on their interpretation has been issued, along with contact details should vessel owners and operators have further queries. We continue to engage with the Commission to clarify points of the legislation and will issue further guidance on these points as it becomes available. In the meantime, we have engaged with individual member states to push for a pragmatic approach to enforcement while UK vessels adapt to the new regulations.
As stated in the recently published Animal Welfare Strategy1 we will encourage industry to end the practice of culling male laying hen chicks. In recent years there has been rapid global progress in a range of technologies that could help end the routine culling of male chicks by identifying or determining the sex of chick embryos before hatching as set out in the Animal Welfare Committee’s ‘Opinion on alternatives to culling newly hatched chicks in the egg and poultry industries’.
The UK–Morocco Association Agreement provides the framework for our £4.6 billion annual bilateral trade relationship, including trade in agri‑food products. Under Article 18 of the Agreement, both parties committed to meet and consider further tariff liberalisation for agriculture and fisheries products. Three rounds of discussions have taken place, most recently in October 2025. Both sides have agreed to work towards a mutually beneficial and balanced outcome.
As part of the wider approach to strengthening agri‑food trade with North Africa, we are also engaging with partners such as Egypt and Tunisia to ensure our agreements remain modern, balanced and supportive of UK producers and consumers. These discussions reflect our commitment to deepening trade relationships across the region.
Any future changes to our trading arrangements will be designed to support UK producers, strengthen the resilience of our food supply chain and ensure that consumers continue to have access to a wide range of affordable, high‑quality food.
The UK–Morocco Association Agreement provides the framework for our £4.6 billion annual bilateral trade relationship, including trade in agri‑food products. Under Article 18 of the Agreement, both parties committed to meet and consider further tariff liberalisation for agriculture and fisheries products. Three rounds of discussions have taken place, most recently in October 2025. Both sides have agreed to work towards a mutually beneficial and balanced outcome.
As part of the wider approach to strengthening agri‑food trade with North Africa, we are also engaging with partners such as Egypt and Tunisia to ensure our agreements remain modern, balanced and supportive of UK producers and consumers. These discussions reflect our commitment to deepening trade relationships across the region.
Any future changes to our trading arrangements will be designed to support UK producers, strengthen the resilience of our food supply chain and ensure that consumers continue to have access to a wide range of affordable, high‑quality food.
The UK–Morocco Association Agreement provides the framework for our £4.6 billion annual bilateral trade relationship, including trade in agri‑food products. Under Article 18 of the Agreement, both parties committed to meet and consider further tariff liberalisation for agriculture and fisheries products. Three rounds of discussions have taken place, most recently in October 2025. Both sides have agreed to work towards a mutually beneficial and balanced outcome.
As part of the wider approach to strengthening agri‑food trade with North Africa, we are also engaging with partners such as Egypt and Tunisia to ensure our agreements remain modern, balanced and supportive of UK producers and consumers. These discussions reflect our commitment to deepening trade relationships across the region.
Any future changes to our trading arrangements will be designed to support UK producers, strengthen the resilience of our food supply chain and ensure that consumers continue to have access to a wide range of affordable, high‑quality food.
The release of pheasant and red legged partridge on or within 500 metres of a European site must be authorised under licence. It is a requirement of such licences to report releases made under their authorisation. Our records show that the following numbers of birds were reported released during the relevant years.
| Pheasant | Red-legged partridge |
2023 | 221,283 reported | 180,868 reported |
2024 | 361,053 reported | 209,030 reported |
2025 | 108,231 reported so far | 46,705 reported so far |
Releases undertaken beyond 500 metres of a European site, do not need to be reported and my Department therefore does not hold the information requested.
The number of birds being released has been increasing, and it is currently estimated that between 39 and 57 million pheasants and 8.1 and 13 million partridges are released in the UK, with 85% of these in England. It is thought that releases on or within 500 metres of a European site in England, represent less than 1% of total release activity in the UK.
Defra does not hold details on how many hectares of the English countryside have been burnt by wildfires in the last twelve months.
MHCLG is responsible for fire policy and operations.
In the last 12 months the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs concluded 51 disciplinary cases. All 51 disciplinary cases were conduct related and not performance related.
Outcomes from these cases were:
In the last 12 months the Animal and Plant Health Agency, Veterinary Medicines Directorate, Rural Payments Agency and the Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science concluded a total of 48 disciplinary cases.
All 48 disciplinary cases were conduct related and not performance related.
Outcomes from these cases were:
The Inter-Ministerial Group for EFRA met on 24 November. The group discussed the following agenda items: water quality and collaboration on nutrient management; the Fisheries and Coastal Growth Fund; funding; the EU-UK SPS agreement; CO2 Supplies and Defra Food Strategy. A communique will be published on GOV.UK in due course.
Ofwat has a legislative duty to further the resilience of water companies’ water supply and wastewater systems to enable them to meet long-term need.
The Government is preparing to respond to the recommendations of the Independent Water Commission, including on asset health and resilience. Reforms outlined in this response will form the basis of a new water reform bill to be introduced during this Parliament.
We are considering the 57 recommendations set out in the Farming Profitability Review. So far, we have announced the creation of a new Farming and Food Partnership Board, whose objective will be to strengthen food production at home and ensure policy delivers real change for farmers; and changes to planning rules to place greater emphasis on food production, making it easier for farmers to develop infrastructure such as reservoirs, greenhouses, polytunnels and farm shops. We are also stepping up action on supply chain fairness, and have announced a new SFI offer for 2026, which will be more focussed, more transparent and fairer so that as many farmers as possible can benefit from it. We will set out a fuller response later this year.
Water companies are Category Two Responders under the Civil Contingencies Act (2004) and have duties to plan for emergencies, including water outage incidents. In England, the Security and Emergency Measures Direction 2022 (SEMD) is the main legislative framework specific to water companies for emergency planning.
This Government has been clear there is no excuse for poor performance, and that water companies must take seriously their role in meeting the public and regulators’ expectations. The Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) regulates water company performance against SEMD requirements. The DWI has a range of tools to hold companies to account, including serving companies with enforcement orders.
Managed by JNCC, the Severe Weather Scheme is designed to help with the conservation of birds listed at Schedule 2 Part 1 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, including woodcock, by reducing disturbance during periods of prolonged cold weather through voluntary restraint and then statutory suspension of shooting.
The threshold for the minimum number of days of freezing weather which would trigger voluntary restraint in England has not been met this winter. However, JNCC remains in regular discussion with Defra, the British Association of Shooting and Conservation, and environmental organisations on the impact to birds of the current and forecast cold weather.
We have begun negotiations with the EU on the SPS agreement.
As announced at the UK-EU Leaders' Summit on 19 May 2025, the UK and EU have agreed to work towards a common Sanitary and Phytosanitary Area, which will mean taking pets on holiday into the EU will become easier and cheaper.
Instead of getting an animal health certificate each time you travel, owners will be able to get a multiuse pet passport valid for travel to the EU. In the meantime, owners will still need an Animal Health Certificate for their dog, cat or ferret if they are travelling from Great Britain to an EU country.
There were no outbreaks of High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza (HPAI) on game farms in England during 2024.
There were 17 outbreaks of HPAI in England during 2024 but none of them were on game farms.
There is no official definition of a game farm in the UK, and the England and Wales Kept Bird Register only details keepers of bird species that might be released for shooting. The following data was extracted from the Animal and Plant Health Agency’s database:
| ENGLAND | WALES | ||
Flock Size | Premises* | Birds | Premises* | Birds |
0-49** | 1,430 | 9,632 | 107 | 854 |
50-999 | 1,795 | 765,701 | 86 | 36,960 |
1,000-9,999 | 1,879 | 5,671,620 | 77 | 259,840 |
10,000-99,999 | 665 | 18,074,681 | 54 | 1,704,480 |
100,000 | 70 | 15,628,895 | 2 | 240,750 |
TOTAL | 5,839 | 40,150,529 | 326 | 2,242,884 |
* Indicates the presence of at least one flock of pheasants, partridges or ducks reared for shooting were kept. It will also include ornamental species and keepers that buy in and rear birds.
** Flocks where no usual stock number has also been recorded.
The Government recently consulted on options to improve the way Biodiversity Net Gain works for small, medium and brownfield development. This included potential changes to the de minimis exemption threshold. Since then, Government has announced its intention to introduce a new area-based exemption set at 0.2 hectares to reduce costs for smaller development while maintaining nature recovery at scale. A full consultation response and impact assessment will be published in due course.
This Government is committed to transitioning towards a circular economy where resources are kept in use for longer and waste is designed out. This systemic change, with investment in green jobs and vital infrastructure, builds a path to economic growth, progress towards Net Zero, restoration of nature, and a more resilient economy.
The Government convened a Circular Economy Taskforce of experts to help map that transition; we will soon publish a Circular Economy Growth Plan that sets out how government will deliver a more circular and more prosperous economy.
The Plan will set out the biggest opportunities to support growth in sectors right across the economy, including chemicals and plastics, as well as: agri-food; built environment; electrical and electronic equipment; textiles; and transport.
Defra, in collaboration with experts across Government, industry, academia and relevant non-governmental organisations, will assess what further interventions may be needed across the plastics sector.
The Government remains committed to improving air quality to deliver benefits for public health, the environment, and the economy. This includes reducing carbon emissions.
The consultation on a proposal to ban the keeping of laying hens in cages was launched on 12 January 2026 and will close on 9 March 2026. For pig farrowing crates, we want to work with industry to explore how to transition away from the use of farrowing crates to alternative systems: either flexible or free farrowing. We will consult on the transition in due course.
The Government accepts that there is a pressing need to address the welfare concerns associated with high concentration carbon dioxide stunning of pigs. As set out in the Government’s animal welfare strategy, and following the Animal Welfare Committee’s report on the topic, we will consult on banning the use of carbon dioxide gas stunning of pigs. Further details will be set out later this year.
The National Fly-tipping Prevention Group met twice in the 2025 calendar year.
The National Fly-Tipping Prevention Group last met in October 2025. The matters discussed included a policy update from Defra officials, which included an update on the review of local authority vehicle seizure powers, statutory fly-tipping enforcement guidance, digital waste tracking and reform of the waste carriers, brokers, dealers and permit exemptions regime. In addition to a broader discussion among members, there were presentations by Fortix AI and Certified Rubbish.
Anyone who walks dogs is required to comply with the Animal Welfare Act 2006 which requires individuals in control of animals to protect them from unnecessary suffering, and to provide for their welfare needs.
Welfare groups such as the RSCPA and Dogs Trust publish advice on their websites for dog walkers on how to keep dogs healthy and active during periods of cold weather.
The Government recognises the key role that regional and local food systems can play in supporting delivery of the growth, health, sustainability, and food security/ resilience outcomes. Defra wants to create an environment that champions UK food cultures and celebrates British food. Connecting local communities can be a key vehicle for achieving this outcome and for harnessing a stronger food culture. The strategy helps strengthen pride in our unique food heritage and cultures and inspire a good food movement around the country.
Alongside, Defra is considering the policy options available to deliver on the Government's ambition for at least half of all food procured by the public sector to be, where possible, locally produced or certified to higher environmental standards, and to make it easier for British suppliers to bid for a share of the £5 billion spent annually on public sector catering contracts. To that end, the Government is conducting the first ever review of food currently bought in the public sector, including where it is bought from.
There are a number of environmental risks to public health in the UK, including air pollution, noise pollution, climate change and extreme weather, emerging chemical and biological risks and water quality.
The Clean Air Act is kept under continuous review to ensure it remains fit for purpose. A number of amendments have been made since its introduction in 1956. The most recent changes were introduced under the Environment Act 2021, which included the strengthening of existing enforcement powers for local authorities in smoke control areas and the introduction of new legally binding targets for fine particulate matter.
We provide guidance for local authorities on enforcement of SCAs - Smoke control area enforcement by local authorities in England and to the public to help them understand the requirements within SCAs – Smoke control areas: the rules.
In November 2025, we published the Post Implementation Review of the Air Quality (Domestic Solid Fuels Standards) (England) Regulations 2020, which assesses the effectiveness of the Regulations.
Data suggest that the Regulations have led to consumers moving from more polluting fuels to less polluting fuels. The review concluded that this has led to a reduction in emissions of PM2.5 and SO2 with environmental and public health benefits.
The results of the UK’s air quality assessment for 2024 are published online on the UK-Air website (https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/). Projections of future compliance for locations in exceedance of the nitrogen dioxide annual mean limit value in 2024 are being developed as part of updates to the national model.
The localised hotspots identified through Defra’s national modelling and monitoring networks are published annually on UK Air (https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/) as part of the national compliance assessment under the Air Quality Standards Regulations 2010. Localised hotspots that have been identified by local authority-owned monitoring are published in their respective annual status reports.
Defra does not publish air quality data in the form requested.
The recently published Environmental Improvement Plan set out a target to reduce average exposure to PM2.5 in England by 30% by 2030 compared to the 2018 value. The emphasis of this approach is to continue reducing exposure across the whole of England.
As part of the Government’s Plan for Change, we are investing £4.2 billion over three years (2026/27 to 2028/29) to construct new flood and coastal erosion schemes and maintain and repair existing defences across England. In our first year in Government, 151 flood defence schemes have been delivered, better protecting over 24,000 homes and businesses.
This Government will invest at least £10.5 billion into our flood defences between April 2024 and March 2036 benefitting nearly 900,000 properties across England.
The Environment Agency’s National Flood Risk Assessment data now includes climate change scenarios, providing the best evidence to inform long-term risk assessment and the development of flood mitigation strategies.
To halt the decline of our flood assets following years of under investment, over 2024/25 and 2025/26 £108 million has been reprioritised into asset maintenance, ensuring an additional 14,500 properties will have their expected level of protection maintained or restored.
Yorkshire's water resources have fully recovered after a notably wet autumn and early winter. The likelihood of a return to drought conditions in 2026 are now the same as they are in the late winter of any recent year. The Environment Agency, Yorkshire Water, and other organisations are reviewing their drought response plans. This will include exploring all options for balancing the need for security of drinking water, for water needed by industry and agriculture, and to maintain the significant leisure industry in a region with two national parks. These needs for water resources must always balance with protecting the valuable habitats and environment of Yorkshire.
Ofwat, the economic regulator, sets specific performance targets for companies including Yorkshire Water in the five-yearly price review. Where companies fail to meet these targets, they must reimburse customers through lower water bills.
As a result, Ofwat's Water Company Performance Report 2024-25 shows that Yorkshire Water's Outcome Delivery Incentive (ODI) underperformance payment was £46.302m. This is available on the Ofwat website: Water Company Performance Report 2024-25 - Ofwat.
The Government expects companies to provide high levels of service for customers and believes customers should be at heart of challenging companies on performance. We ensured companies updated their Articles of Association, the rules governing each company, to make the interests of customers a primary objective and took powers in the Water (Special Measures) Act 2025 to allow the Consumer Council for Water introduce new customer panels to hold companies to account.
Defra promotes tree planting in upper catchments to enhance the water environment, supported by a suite of targeted grants including the England Woodland Creation Offer, the Environment Agency’s (EA) Natural Flood Management Programme, and wider Environmental Land Management schemes such as Landscape Recovery and Countryside Stewardship. Defra is also supporting delivery of the Water Environment Improvement Fund, Water Restoration Fund and Local Nature Recovery Strategies to ensure action is directed where it delivers the greatest water quality, flood resilience, and biodiversity benefits.
Looking ahead, the EA will be scaling up investment in natural flood management interventions, including tree planting, through the Flood and Coastal Erosion Risk Management investment programme that starts in April. This has been enabled by the Government’s updated flood funding rules with a commitment to direct at least 3% of the FCERM programme spend to standalone NFM in the first four years and 4% over a ten-year period.
Together, these initiatives contribute directly to the Environmental Improvement Plan’s commitments on increasing tree cover, improving water quality, and strengthening flood mitigation.
On 22 December, the Government published our new animal welfare strategy. This strategy sets out the UK Government’s priorities for England, focusing on the changes and improvements we aim to achieve by 2030.
The Government continues to engage with businesses, consumer groups and charities to gather evidence on the issues and impacts of fireworks, including on animal welfare.